INTRODUCTION

Researchers have characterized traceable genetic sequence markers among descendants of the earliest founding human populations to inhabit the continental northlands and southlands of Ixachilan (a Nahuatl word for the Western Hemisphere). More than a decade of genetics research combined with evidence from the linguistic, molecular anthropologic, and archaeologic fields, now support a theory of complex human migration patterns in the New World that date back in natural history to more than 30,000 years ago before present (BP). This origin and migration theory is not merely "a hunch," as some skeptics of scientific theory have put forth in recent arguments. Rather, "in science, a theory is an explanation for a set of known facts and observations," remarks Stanford biologist Donald Kennedy and a panel from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in an educational report designed to teach science literacy in Amerikan classrooms (qtd. in Holden 194).

From ancient artifacts uncovered beneath forested regions of Chile, to the near extinction of the indigenous Taino people on the tropical isles of the Caribbean Sea—evolving from native research is a fascinating story about the original people of the red brown earth, their descendants, a legacy of ancestral remains, and a volumetric contribution to the precolonial human concourse—as never described before in mainstream media. Scientists have identified descendants of Ixachilan's First People among the contemporary tribal peoples and the urban-dwelling Mexican populations of the Continental North, among the indigenous populations of the Continental Midland and of the tropic Continental Isles, among the village dwelling inhabitants of the peripheral artic and the subartic regions, and among nomadic and cosmopolitan populations of the Andean, coastal, savannah grassland, and Amazonian regions of the Continental South (Schurr 247).

Common geographic names are redefined in this article for principle reasons. One point is to emphasize recognition of the founding heritage and connected homelands among the indigenous peoples throughout Ixachilan. More than 500 years of invading forces and colonial practices have divided native populations with militarized borders, disassembled native traditions, and conditioned a cultural identity in Amerika that harbors hatred and promotes self-hatred of indigenous recognition. In effect, these colonial practices and Western teachings aim to disconnect indigenous people from their relationships to the land and from one another.

In order to resolve such complex relationships between the founding heritage, common ancestry, and connected homelands of Ixachilankah (the Western Hemisphere's indigenous peoples), the aim of this article is to present DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) evidence that begins to resolve the ancestral relationships and natural human migration events of the red brown earth's original inhabitants. These genetic relationships and historical connections with the land were established in precolonial times along genetic trails of humankind in the New World.

In 1492, the arrival of Eurocentric Amerikan culture in the New World brought adversity, including colonial warfare and enslavement onto the original inhabitants and their descendants. Befallen with this adversity, the indigenous populations were quickly subjugated by numerous colonial powers in far-reaching and long-lasting outcomes of habitat invasion, cultural destruction, systematic genocide, and socioeconomic stratification. In less than 50 years of colonial Amerikan history, Spanish invaders had reached Baja, Mexico on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Aided by Old World firearm technology and opportunistic encounters with immunocompromised native populations, colonial advancement spread as Eurocentric cultivation rapidly supplanted the native habitat and diverse indigenous cultures. The land was no longer free to walk upon, the fruits of the red brown earth were no longer available for indigenous use, and a hemispheric siege by the Colonial Imposition of Old World religious authority, (English) common and Roman law, and colonial superiority had begun.

Over the centuries, Eurocentric Amerikan culture thrived along with the spread of misinformation and the persistent circulation of stigmatizing myths about the "savage Native" and their "primitive, barbaric culture." Today, many of these historical perspectives of New World Native Peoples in Amerikan media, literature, and other liberal art works are questioned for their exploitive and biased content and replaced with truths taught in the home, challenged with facts extracted from the encyclopedia, and debated with lessons taught at the University level:

Yet even in Amerikan academia, common misapplied terms to indigenous people such as the apposition of "Native People" as "colonizers" that is emphasized in the literature as if all people are colonizers lacking an indigenous identity. Indigenous people of Ixachilan are not colonizers as many American academic circles tend to cite. A colony is defined by Webster's dictionary as "a group of people who leave their native country to form in a new land a settlement subject to, or connected with the parent nation." This is the case with European colonizers and their descendants in the Western Hemisphere, those whom maintain cultural relationships such as the English language, Old World religious tenets and judicial systems, together with an ancestral heritage with the parental continent of Europe. However this is not the case with Ixachilankah and their descendants, where linguistic and ancestral relationships have existed throughout the entire Western Hemisphere for a time span in the tens of thousands of years. These relationships continue to exist despite centuries of societal and institutional incriminations of native culture by religious and governing colonial institutions.

DNA is a Physical Entity
Contrary to antagonistic efforts such as those mentioned above that negate native culture and devalue its people, recent human population DNA studies reveal that indigenous people of Ixachilan share distinct genetic relationships and possess significant retention of their native ancestry across widespread, geographic areas. These genetic relationships and historical connections with the New World land existed and were well-established long before Euro-installed political borders, law, and religious order arrived.

In other important population genetics studies, a global human origins study conducted by Mark Seielstad et al., of the Harvard School of Public Health, produced evidence that all humans, New World and Old World, are descended from the same human ancestors in Africa (558). From these and other genetic data, scientists are now able to reconstruct human migration events, trace genetic trails out of Africa, and map genetic pathways of humankind the world over (cited in Carajal-Carmona, et al. 1287). A worldwide study of human-nuclear DNA by Clifford, Soodyall, & Stoneking of Pennsylvania State University, provides evidence for human migration and gene flow out of Africa beginning 137,000 years ago, (plus or minus) ± 15,000 years (1061). Based on genetic evidence alone, the species-level relationship between Old World and New World humans emerged in a prehistoric Africa continent within a natural state of habitat, undefined by regional borders, ethnic labels, or "racial" divisions.

Common geographic names are redefined in this article for native recognition purpose and in observance of geographic orientation centered on global human (Homo sapien sapien) origins arising in Africa around 140,000 years ago. Historically, since colonization of the New World, the practice of labeling or imposing derogatory and dehumanizing names to Native People and their land continues. Such is the case with the use of the misnomer of the "Caribbean," that means "cannibal." As an example of earlier colonial propaganda, this form of slander was imposed on native inhabitants of Ixachilan by the Spaniards due their belief that indigenous people on the mainland ate human flesh (Webster's 199). In response to these and many other abject designations, we use the following terms for geographic regional direction as depicted in the map (Figure 1) below to define Ixachilan as a place where native lands are all connected as well as the people: Ixachilan includes the Continental North, the Continental Midland and Isles, and the Continental South.

Scott Jorgensen Image 2001.

Questions about the origins and migrations of the New World's first human inhabitants resurfaced in the scientific community during the early 1990s, and subsequent scientific inquiry has sparked controversial theories as a result. Today's theories on the origins and migrations of Ixachilankah are temporally and regionally unparalleled with current secular teachings in the classrooms of Amerika or with the religious doctrines found amongst the various Amerikan evangelist denominations. Central to the controversy, is recent genetic and linguistic evidence indicating that arrival of Ixachilan's first human inhabitants occurred during a number of progressions. These migrations originated in Siberia and date back in natural history to more than 30,000 years ago BP (Schurr 248; Stone and Stoneking 1164; Hurtado de Mendoza and Braginski 1439; Starikovskaya et al.1473).

New scientific explanations diverged from the dogma when scientists employed molecular biology tools to address their inquiries on the peopling of the New World. Findings from these inquiries include genetic evidence that begins to answer the questions that are posed:

Corbis Image

NATURAL HISTORY:

SHAPING THE PREHISTORIC NEW WORLD

Human migration to the New World commenced during the Pleistocene epoch in the Cenozoic Era of geologic time (Figure 2). The Pleistocene epoch occurred about 2 million years BP and lasted until 10,000 years ago BP. Natural history's most recent serial Ice Age, the origins of humankind in Africa, and human arrival in the New World during the Pleistocene terminal phase mark this epoch (Encylopedia Americana online 2001).

FOUR ERAS OF GEOLOGIC TIME

Archeological evidence of human habitation in the New World further back in natural history than 12,000 years ago is accumulating. Structural evidence from a site in Monte Verde, Chile, known as Monte Verde I, includes stone tool artifacts and possible human-made burned clay objects with radiocarbon dates around 33,000 years ago. The ancient site was unburied by archeologist Tom Dillehay of the University of Kentucky following an initial and successful excavation of a 12,500-years-old settlement in the upper levels of the Monte Verde, Chile location (Dillehay 167). The uppermost 12,500-years-old site is known as Monte Verde II (Figure 3) and was discovered during the mid-1970s in a forested region in the vicinity of Chinchihuapi Creek by local villagers (Dillehay 161).

Artifacts excavated from Dillehay's investigations were studied by more than sixty scientists from interdisciplinary backgrounds (Dillehay 161). Researchers postulate that it may have taken as long as 6,000 years of migratory movement, in addition to the 12,500 calendar years, for First People descendants to arrive at the Monte Verde site from Siberian origins (Recer). The Monte Verde II archeological findings amount to human arrival in the New World dating back 18,500 years ago.

Dillehay will not confirm the 33,000-years-old Monte Verde I site as a valid settlement until further evidence is found and discoveries of other sites with similar radiocarbon dates in Ixachilan are confirmed (Dillehay 167). Despite inconclusive findings surrounding the 33,000-years-old Monte Verde I site, pending further investigation, it is certain that the founding populations carried with them—in nearly every cell, distinctive genetic evidence that was transmitted to offspring for a thousand or greater number of generations. Who then—were these New World foragers, and how can scientist study genetic evidence in today's indigenous New World populations to resolve questions on First People origins and migrations?

DNA EVIDENCE

FINDING AND BUILDING A GENETIC MODEL FOR STUDY

Scientists used three genetic models to study peopling of the New World: Y chromosomal DNA, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and the genetic sequence of the albumin protein.

Humans share a 99.9 % genetically similar function and identity of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules collectively known as a human genome (Goetinck). This means that human beings share a nearly identical hereditary package and related expression which cannot be discriminated into terms of variant "human races." Any such reference to terms of human race are thereby invalid and representative of uninformed opinion or misguided information as often served when the subject of "racial category" is addressed in government-influenced publications. The human genome by definition is not discernible by "racial category" among globally diverse people of differing heritage, color, cultural affinity, regional background, ethnic origin, or creation story.

The major component of the human genome is comprised of 46 chromosomes located in the nucleus of every human cell with the exception of red blood cells and the matured sex cells. On closer inspection, the genetic content of the nucleus includes 23 chromosomes inherited from the maternal source (ovum) and 23 homologous counterparts inherited from the paternal source (spermatozoa). Homologous chromosomes are paired arrangements of the respective 23 chromosomes with each representative chromosome being inherited from one parental contributor. For example, the X and Y chromosomes constitute a homologous pairing.(Genome Glossary: homologous chromosome).

The 23 chromosomes of the respective parental contributors are further classified as 22 autosomal chromosomes that do not carry sex determining sequences and one sex chromosome that does (Genome Glossary: autosome). Prior to fertilization, the 22 autosomal chromosomes undergo genetic recombination (gene exchange) events that interchange genetic material in the immature sex cells of the respective parents. Genetic recombinations are completely natural and increase the diversity of the genetic contribution from each parent to the next generation. However, genetic exchanges that occur during recombination events make it difficult for scientists to study autosomal chromosomes due to introduced variability over time. Scientists have discovered that the male sex chromosome is a better genetic model for human origins and migration study.

The sex chromosomes include one Y contribution from the paternal source and one X contribution from the maternal source if the offspring is male. The male specific region of the Y chromosome is not compatible with the X chromosome for genetic recombination events, thus this portion of the Y chromosome is left very much intact from generation to generation of father to son, providing scientists with highly conserved genetic sequences for study (Lell et al., 536). The Human Genome Project information website for the public defines conserved genetic sequences as "sequences that have remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution" (Genome Glossary: conserved sequence).

Another component of the human genome is mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that originates from sub-cellular organelles of the maternal ovum known as mitochondria. The mitochondria are required for biochemical activity and contain their own discrete DNA known as mtDNA (Figure 4).

mtDNA is passed via the maternal ovum without undergoing genetic recombination events to female or male offspring. Thus mtDNA remains relatively intact generation to generation in the transmission from mother to daughter child in similar conservative style as the highly conserved male- specific sequences of the Y chromosome among males (Schurr 248).

Highly conserved genetic sequences are useful to the scientist interested in characterizing specific genetic sequences or genes. Genes are defined as specific regions of the DNA material representing chemical instruction for the transmittal synthesis of a protein, protein constituents, or other biochemical participants (Alberts, et al. 457; Genetics: The Basics).

Scientists can study a specific gene with constituent genetic sequence changes that have occurred naturally over time. These gene changes, known as mutations are then compared with samples of the same gene from populations of differing heritage or regional backgrounds.

Gene mutations also arise randomly in otherwise highly conserved sequences such as those found in mtDNA or the Y chromosome. These gene or marker mutations can then be regionally propagated to descending populations over time and are useful in identifying ancestry or migration origins once the mutation is characterized. For example, we can trace a single mutation in a gene with a mutation origin in Africa that results in sickle cell anemia today among homologous carriers. A single copy of this mutant gene is beneficial and confers resistance to malaria. However, two copies (a homologous pair) of the modified gene results in the sickle cell condition (Voet and Voet 126). In human population genetic studies, the origins and migrations of people can be traced by marker mutations that demonstrate patterns of inheritance from well characterized genes or DNA sequences of mtDNA and the Y chromosome (Genome Glossary: marker).

DNA SAMPLING, TESTING, AND RESULTS

CHARACTERIZING DNA HAPLOGROUPS

Researchers collected mtDNA from diverse cultural populations extending across Ixachilan as listed below in Table 1 (O'Rouke et al., 18-20; Schurr 247). Each DNA sample was reacted with restriction enzymes that specifically cleave genetic material at characteristic sites much like a pair of scissors can be used to cut a loop of yarn to a specific size. Next, the fragmented DNA is resolved according to the size of each fragment. Compilations of such fragments form a composite of an individual's DNA haplotype. Related groups of haplotypes with matching constituent mutations of common ancestral origin are further classified into a haplogroup or lineage. For example, researchers have characterized four major haplogroups as representative of mtDNA founding lineages among descendants of the original inhabitants of the New World that are designated as haplogroups A, B, C, and D (Schurr 249).

Approximately 97% of all mtDNA sampled and tested thus far from contemporary indigenous based populations encompassing all of Ixachilan is classified into one of the four major founding haplogroups identified with New World ancestry (Green, Derr, and Knight 989; Brown, et al. 1852). Evidence from other mtDNA studies involving ancient samples from various regions of the Ixachilan, including results from the ancient remains of the Southwestern Anasazi, Utah Fremont, and Western Illinois Oneota, confirm the presence of the four founding New World haplogroups among ancestral mtDNA as well (O'Rourke, et al. 15; Stone and Stoneking,1153). Dr. L. J. Zimmerman, Chair of American Indian and Native Studies Program at the University of Iowa describes the Oneota as a prehistoric mound culture that inhabited the Illinois riverside bluffs circa 1,200 years ago BP until European contact (and subsequent demise).

WHERE DID THE NEW WORLD FOUNDING POPULATIONS ORIGINATE?

Haplogroup characterization study as previously and/or similarly described in this article and based on either mtDNA or Y chromosomal DNA, suggest multiple Asian origins of migration by the New World founding populations (Schurr 248). Specific Asian locations include the northern and eastern ranges alongside Lake Baikal (Russia), Mongolia, West Siberia, and Beringia, the now submerged land mass that once joined Asia and Alaska, for Y chromosome characterized haplotype origins (Schurr 253).

One major New World DNA marker is identified by scientists as the Y chromosome 1G-haplotype. In a global study with 2,198 males from 60 geographic loci, Karafet (1999), et al. found a 1G-haplotype frequency distribution of approximately 54% amongst all New World groups. This DNA marker was found completely absent in African, European, and Australian groups (820). The 1G-haplotype findings suggest that this DNA mutation found amongst New World male groups sampled, possibly arose in an ancestral Beringian population that proceeded to traverse the entire New World lands more than 30,000 years ago (Lell, et al. 536).

DNA LINEAGE DISTRIBUTION

WHAT ARE THE CURRENT THEORIES ON NATIVE PEOPLE MIGRATIONS IN THE NEW WORLD?

Distribution frequency trends of mtDNA haplogroups-A,B,C, and D introduce deeper complexities in the determination of regional migration patterns of Native People in the New World. mtDNA haplogroup-B has an ubiquitous presence in Ixachilan with exceptions to remote, sparsely populated regions of the northwestern (NW) Continental North (Figure A), Siberia, and the utmost southern tip of the Continental South (Figure B), (Starikovskaya et al. 1474). Whereas haplogroup-A is most commonly found in Chukotka of extreme North East (NE) Siberia and its peoples, the Paleoasiatic-speaking Chukchi, Na-Dene speaking peoples, and the Inuit-Aleuts (Schurr 253).

Figure A. mtDNA Haplogroups A-D in the Continental North. Representative Frequency Distributions in the Continental North of mtDNA Haplogroups A-D as a Graphic Reconstruction (approximate) of Results from Diverse Cultural Populations Listed in Table 1. Actual Data of All Groups Sampled and Sources are Listed in Table 2 (Table 2 content not loaded).

mtDNA Haplogroups A-D in the Continental North

Haplogroup-A then decreases in frequency from the Continental North southward. In comparison, we find variable frequencies of haplogroup-B amongst present-day Native Peoples of the Continental North and amongst contemporary Amazonian and Andean peoples of the Continental South. This random, aclinal geographic dispersion of haplogroup-B, combined with its lacking presence in the NW Continental North, suggests an independent, perhaps Pacific coastal migration to the prehistoric Western Hemisphere by Native People haplogroup-B ancestral carriers (Starikovskaya et al. 1474).

Figure B. mtDNA Haplogroups A-D in the Continental South. Representative Frequency Distributions in the Continental South of mtDNA Haplogroups A-D as a Graphic Reconstruction (approximate) of Results from Diverse Cultural Populations Listed in Table 1. Actual Data of All Groups Sampled and Sources are Listed in Table 2 (Table 2 content not loaded).

mtDNA Haplogroups A-D in the Continental South

WHEN DID NEW WORLD FOUNDING HUMAN POPULATIONS ARRIVE?

Estimates range from 17,700 years ago to 47,650 years ago BP on entry hallmarks in natural history of the four-founding mtDNA haplogroups A-D carriers (Bonatto and Salzano 1413, 1420-1). Introduction of the major Y chromosome haplotype-1G is estimated at 30,000 years ago BP in either ancestral populations of Beringia or prehistoric Ixachilan (Lell et al. 540; Hurtado de Mendoza and Braginski 1439).

SPECIAL TOPIC SECTION

Was Ancient One of European or New World Descent ? Figure 5. Controversy Over the Remains and Ancestry of the Ancient One, also Known as Kennewick Man by U.S. scientists. Represented below are two graphic reconstructions of a clay bust (Barnard AP) crafted from a cast of the original skull found at Kennewick, WA in 1996. The image to the left is the clay bust with fair, white features that are commonly found among humans of Northern European descent. The image to the right is the same clay bust with red brown/black features commonly found among indigenous people of New World descent. Graphic Reconstructions of Kennewick clay model by Scott Jorgensen & Citlalin Xochime 2001.